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I. Figures of Speech
I. Figures of Speech
A figure of speech is simply a word or phrase, in a particular form, that departs from its straightforward meaning.
1. Some Types of Figures of Speech
1. Some Types of Figures of Speech
- Simile
A comparison by resemblance. Using the term ‘like.’
Luke 3:22 - “…like a dove.”
Matt. 23:27 - “... like whitewashed tombs.”
- Metaphor
A comparison by representation. Comparing two things by equating the qualities of one object to another.
Ps. 23:1 - “the Lord is my shepherd.”
John 6:35 - “I am the bread of life.”
- Symbolism
A kind of metaphor.
Genesis 9:12 - “This is the sign of the covenant…”
- Parable
An extended simile.
Luke 15:8-10 - “...in the same way…”
- Allegory
An extended metaphor.
2 Sam. 14:4ff - the story of the woman from Tekoa.
Gal 4:21ff - Hagar and Sarah.
- Hypocatastasis
A comparison by implication. Comparing two things in which their likeness is implied by direct naming.
Matt 7:6 - “Do not give what is holy to dogs, and do not throw your pearls before swine...”
Matt. 15:13 - “Every plant which My heavenly Father did not plant shall be uprooted.”
- Metonymy
Substituting of one word for another. When referring to a decision made by the ‘White house’ we really mean the ‘President of the United States.’
Lev. 26:6 - “...and no sword will pass through your land.”
Proverbs 12:18 - “The tongue of the wise brings healing.”
- Synecdoche
Substituting of a part of something for the whole, or the whole for a part.
John 12:32 - “...will draw all people to myself.”
Luke 2:1 - “...all the inhabited world.”
- Merism
A form of synecdoche in which something in totality is substituted by two contrasting parts. A listing the parts to represent the whole.
Ex. 31:17 - “...the heavens and the earth.”
- Hendiadys
Literally “one through two.” A hendiadys is one concept presented by two words.
Gen. 19:24 - “Fire and brimstone.”
Gen. 3:16 - “Pain and childbearing.”
- Hendiatris
Literally “one through three.” A hendiatris is one concept presented by three words.
Dan. 3:7 - “...all the peoples, nations, and languages fell down...”
John 14:6 - “I am the way, the truth, and the life.”
- Personification
Giving human traits to non-human objects.
Ps. 35:10 - “All my bones shall say…”
Ps. 73:9 - “They set their mouths against the heavens, and their tongue struts through the earth.”
Isa. 55:12 “...the mountains and the hills before you shall break forth into singing,and all the trees of the field shall clap their hands.
- Anthropomorphism
Describing God in human terms.
Neh. 2:8 - “...for the good hand of my God was upon me.”
Ps. 8:3 - “...the work of your fingers.”
Ps. 31:2 - “Incline your ear to me…”
2 Chron. 16:9 - “For the eyes of the Lord run to and fro throughout the whole earth…”
- Zoomorphism
Describing God in animal terms.
Ruth 2:12 - “...under whose wings you have come to take refuge”
Hosea 11:10 - “...like a lion...roars…”
- Apostrophe
Addressing an object as if it were a person, or to an imaginary figure.
Jer. 2:12 - "Be appalled at this, you heavens, and shudder with great horror..."
Ps. 114:5 - “Why was it, O sea, that you fled?”
- Euphemism
The substituting of an inoffensive word or idea for an offensive one.
1 Sam. 24:3 - “...cover feet”
1 Thes. 4:14 - “...those who have fallen asleep in Jesus.”
Genesis 19:8 - “...who have not known a man.”
- Ellipsis
When a word of phrase is dropped out and the reader must complete the idea. The missing words are necessary for the grammar, but not necessary for the sense.
1 Cor 15:5 - “...the twelve.”
1 Cor. 15:53 - “..this corruptible… this mortal…”
- Zeugma
The joining of subjects, where only one fits the verb correctly.
Isa 2:3 “Come, let us go up to the mountain of the Lord, to the house of the God of Jacob…”
Luke 1:64 - “His mouth was opened and his tongue.”
- Allusion
Referring to something in history or literature. It is important to first identify an allusion, and then to locate the referent of the allusion. Cross references and the Treasury of Scripture Knowledge can help with finding the referent.
Matt. 2:15 - “And so was fulfilled what the Lord had said through the prophet: ‘Out of Egypt I called my son.’”
Matt. 12:7 - “If you had known what these words mean, ‘I desire mercy, not sacrifice,’ you would not have condemned the innocent.”
- Prolepsis
Literary foreshadowing.
Matt. 10:4 - “...and Judas Iscariot, who betrayed him”
Heb. 2:8 - “...and put everything under their feet.”
- Rhetorical Question
A question the speaker asks but already knows the answer. The audience is not necessarily intended to actually answer the question, rather the question is asked to make a point.
In biblical Greek, sometimes the answer to a rhetorical question can be inferred by the Greek words used. Questions expecting a negative answer are expressed by μη and the indicative mood. Questions expecting a positive answer have οὺ and the indicative.
Ps 113:5 - “Who is like the Lord our God?”
Romans 8:31 - “If God is for us, who can be against us?”
- Irony
Expressing meaning by using language that normally signifies the opposite of what is being stated. Comparing something by its absurdity.
Matt. 23:24 - “You blind guides, who strain out a gnat and swallow a camel!”
- Hyperbole
An exaggeration when more is said than is literally meant. A clear overstatement than should be literally possible.
2 Chron. 28:9 - “... rage which has even reached heaven.”
Ps. 6:6 - “Every night I make my bed swim, I dissolve my couch with my tears."
Amos 9:13 - “When the plowman will overtake the reaper, and the treader of grapes him who sows seed.”
Matt. 19:24 - “Camel to go through an eye of needle…”
Matt. 23:24 - “...strain out a gnat and swallow a camel.”
- Litotes (a.k.a. Meiosis)
The opposite of hyperbole, a deliberate understatement. Belittling something to magnify something else.
Eph 3:8 - “...the very least of all saints...”
Acts 27:20 - “...no small storm...”
- Oxymoron
The combining of two contradictory terms. A wise saying that seems foolish.
Isa. 58:10 - “...and your night will become like the noonday.”
Job 22:6 - “...stripped the clothing of the naked.”
- Paradox
Something that is absurd or contradictory.
Matt. 20:16 - “So the last shall be first, and the first last.”
2 Cor 12:10 - “... for when I am weak, then I am strong.”
Difference between a paradox and an oxymoron: https://www.dictionary.com/e/paradox-oxymoron/
- Pleonasm
Redundancy using more words than is required, or needed, or necessary.
Gen 40:23 - “...did not remember Joseph; he forgot him”
- Epizeuxis
Repeating a word for emphasis.
Isa 28:10 - “כִּ֣י צַ֤ו לָצָו֙ צַ֣ו לָצָ֔ו קַ֥ו לָקָ֖ו קַ֣ו לָקָ֑ו זְעֵ֥יר שָׁ֖ם זְעֵ֥יר שָֽׁם”
- Pun (a.k.a. Paronomasia)
Using a word or similar sounding words to suggest different meanings. Sometimes knowledge of the original languages is required to spot these.
Gen. 1:2 - The phrase “תֹ֙הוּ֙ וָבֹ֔הוּ” (Toe-who avo-who) ‘formless and void.’
- Onomatopoeia
The pronunciation of a word suggests its meaning.
Gen 17:19 - ‘Isaac’ in biblical Hebrew sounds like laughter.
And more!
And more!
For more information on types of Figures of Speech:
Bullinger, E.W., Figures of speech used in the Bible, explained and illustrated, (1898).
Zuck, Roy. Basic Bible Interpretation. “Figures of Speech,” 148-161.
Hendricks, Howard. Living by the Book. “Figuring out the Figurative,” 257ff.
Ramm, Bernard. Protestant Biblical Interpretation. “aa. Figure of Speech,” 143.
2. Recognizing Figures of Speech
2. Recognizing Figures of Speech
Figures of speech can easily go unrecognized. When this happens, the intention of the author is misunderstood, resulting in an erroneous understanding. If something doesn’t seem to fit well in a straightforward literal sense, there is a strong possibility that it is a figure of speech.
Dealing with a figures of speech:
Determine that a figure of speech is being used.
Analyze the literal meaning of the figure and what image it would create in the reader’s mind. Always take a passage in its literal sense unless there is a good reason not to.
If the literal sense would involve something impossible.
Deut. 8:15, Ps. 107:33 (thirsty ground)
If the literal meaning is an absurdity.
Isa. 55:12 (trees clapping their hands)
If the literal meaning would demand immoral action.
John 6:53-58 (For my flesh is real food and my blood is real drink)
Identify the point of comparison between the figure and reality. Sometimes a figurative expression is followed by a literal explanation.
1 Thes. 4:13ff - Those who “fall asleep” are revealed as those who “were dead.”
John 11:11ff - “...he told them plainly, ‘Lazarus is dead...’”
Determine what aspect of the figure’s meaning the author is intending to express in the passage.
Isa. 1:9 - What aspect of Sodom and Gomorrah is the author referencing?
Determine how the author wanted the figure to function, and what meaning it is intended to contribute to the passage.
For further reading:
Zuck, Roy, Basic Biblical Interpretation, “How do you know if an expression is figurative or literal?” 145ff.
Hendricks, Howard, living by the Book. “Figuring out the Figurative,” 260ff.
II. Genres
II. Genres
Determining the Literary Type or Genre of the Book
Genre is a categorization of literature by similarities in form, style, or subject matter. There are several major classifications of Biblical literature that are helpful to be aware of:
1. Historical Narrative
1. Historical Narrative
These are books which tell of historical events and are usually in chronological order. They are not a just history books but narrations that communicate theology. God chose specific events in history to relay theological truths to those in the present. Historical Narrative books will often contain other literary types. Historical Narrative is usually presented and taught in large sections. The major historical books are Genesis to Esther, the Gospels, and Acts. The Gospels can be considered a sub-genre.
2. Epistles
2. Epistles
These are letters written specifically from the author to specific places or people. Their content is often about instruction, rebuke, encouragement, correction and admonishment. They will sometimes contain other literary types: quotations, allusion, etc. They will usually feature an introduction, body, exhortation, and closing. They are usually very theological, and exposition of them is enhanced by a verse by verse approach. Books categorized as Epistles are from Romans to Jude.
3. Prophetic Books
3. Prophetic Books
Prophetical books predict God's future plan (fore-telling) and also feature restatements of previously proclaimed truth (forth-telling). They are also theological, emphasizing God's plan. Prophetical books also contain other literary styles. The prophetical books are Isaiah to Malachi, and Revelation. Revelation can be considered a sub-genre called Apocalyptic.
4. Wisdom Literature (a.k.a. Poetical Books)
4. Wisdom Literature (a.k.a. Poetical Books)
These books are written in Hebrew poetry. Hebrew poetry uses word repetition and synonyms. If read in Hebrew, similar rhythms might be heard. Hebrew poetry is more about pattern and design than about rhyme. Hebrew poetry often features metaphors and abstractions, and attempts to communicate at an experiential level. Some features of Hebrew Poetry are parallelism, terseness, rhetorical devices (such as Chiasm), and highly figurative language, including onomatopoeia. The Psalms are poetry and songs of worship and praise yet are very theological in content. Some poetical books are Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Song of Solomon. Poetry is quoted or featured in other genres.
A. Proverbs
Proverbs are concise and memorable statements. They are often striking in their impact on the reader. They are observations about human experience. They consist of such things as sayings, riddles, allegories, admonitions, dialogues, and principles. They often feature metaphors.
B. Psalms
Psalms are liturgical. Psalms usually feature a statement, development, and then a resolution. Hebrew poetry is often characterized by parallelism. There are many different structural features with Hebrew poetry, such are chiasm and acronyms.
5. Legal Literature
5. Legal Literature
Legal literature is literature that deals with laws and legal matters. There is a fair amount of legal literature featured in Exodus, Numbers, and Leviticus.
For more information:
Zuck, Roy. Basic Biblical Interpretation, “Literary Genre in the Bible” 126ff.
Klein, Blomberg, and Hubbard. Introduction to Biblical Interpretation. “Genres of the Old Testament” “Genres or the New Testament,” 259-374.
Hendricks, Howard. Living by the Book. “What type of Literature is this?” 209ff.
III. Seeing the Flow / Arrangement of the Text
III. Seeing the Flow / Arrangement of the Text
Thought Flow/Structure
A good way to study a book, or portion of scripture is to note all the connectives, perhaps underlining them or listing them. Once you have them listed, determine how each one is being used. This will help you grasp the logical flow of the author. Other things that are helpful to note (to determine the thought flow) are changes in subject matter: Such as changes in major characters (e.g. Gen 12-50 Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph; Acts 1-12, 13-28 Peter and Paul respectively). Changes in places also help to indicate a change in structure, such as the Exodus out of Egypt. Historical events can also indicate changes in flow (1 & 2 Samuel, 1 & 2 Kings). Change in subject matter can indicate structural change, such as theological ideas (Romans, Galatians).
When looking for the structure of a book, it is often helpful to read through the entire book at least once. Perhaps the first time you can note changes in subject matter and give titles to the different sections. After a second read look to see the big picture of the book, also called the theme.
Sometimes understanding the theme of a book requires a bit of synthesis. This involves some interpretation, which the next session will cover.
For more information:
Zuck, Roy. Basic Biblical Interpretation, “Structural Analysis” 135ff.
Klein, Blomberg, and Hubbard. Introduction to Biblical Interpretation. “Grammatical-Structural Relationships,” 199ff.
Hendricks, Howard. Living by the Book. “Putting it all together,” 268ff.
Exercise
Exercise
Observations:
Read John 21:1-6. Make observations on the passage. Start by making observations on your own, and then expand to use various study tools. Keep the observations separated into lists by where you got the observation (yourself, concordance, study Bible, etc).
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