1. Lexical, Syntactical, and Grammatical Observations

A. Words

Words are the building blocks that the author uses to convey ideas. Words need to be understood in their context, as context and usage determine the meaning of a word. Dictionaries and Lexicons can help with understanding the denotation of words. Word Studies can be used to help narrow in on the meaning of a particular word in its context.

B. Connectives

Look for the connectives! The connectives put the pieces together and establish the flow of the author’s thought. Contrasts, comparisons, logical progressions, cause and effect, and all manner of communication is held together by the glue of the connectives. Recognizing the connectives and the verbals is the most important step in seeing the shape of the author’s flow of thought. They are the skeleton that the text is built around.

Some connectives:

• Emphatic: indeed, only, verily

• Local: in, where

• Logical: Contrast: but, much more, neither, nevertheless, yet

• Logical: Comparison: also, as, as…so, even so, likewise, so, so also, so…as

• Logical: Condition: if

• Logical: Reason: because, for, since

• Logical: Result: so that, so then, then, therefore, wherefore

• Logical: Series of facts: and, first, or

• Temporal: after, before, now, then, until, when, while
  

There are different types of connectives, which indicate different types of arrangement. For instance, comparisons associate similar thoughts, people or actions (Romans 5:12-21, Hebrews 5). While contrasts disassociate thoughts, people, or actions (1 John 1:5).

C. Subjects and Objects

Determine what is the main subject, and if there are direct objects, indirect objects, etc.

D. Predicates

Determine what is the main verb, and identify any helping verbs. Identify any gerunds, participles, or infinitives. These convey an action or relationship about the subject. Often, there is an object that the action is in some way related to. The relationship can be active, passive, transitive, intransitive, etc.

E. Patterns, Repetition, and Word Order

Similar verb forms, or repetition of words can indicate a pattern. Sentences might start with the same letter in an acrostic. 1 Cor. 15:3-10 features a coordinating pattern with multiple usages of “and that.” Words that appear out of normal order, might be that way for a particular emphasis.

For further reading:

• Zuck, Roy, Basic Bible Interpretation “Word order and Repetition,” 121.
  

F. Comparisons and Contrasts

Comparisons can be seen in simile, metaphors, parables and allegories.

Parables are equivalent to an extended simile. An allegory is an extended metaphor. Contrasts often are noted by the usage of the word “but” and sometimes “rather.” Contrasts can also be expressed by metaphor, such as expressing irony.

For further reading:

• Hendricks, Howard, Living by the Book, “Things that are alike and unlike” 158ff.
  

G. Commands and Exhortations

Commands are authoritative instructions to do (or not do) a particular action. Imperative is a type of Greek verb tense indicating commands. Exhortations are requests to do or not do something.

H. Prepositions and Prepositional Phrases

There are many prepositions in language. A preposition is basically an action that gives an idea of relationship. Thus prepositional phrases modify their subject matter, with the aim of communicating some sort of relationship. Some prepositions are: from, out of, in/into, to/toward, through, after, around, above, under, against, alongside.

I. Adjectives, Adverbs, and Genitives

Adjectives describe or qualify a noun. Adverbs describe verbs. Genitives are often possessive in nature. Genitives are words or phrases that modify the meaning of another word or phrase. E.g. Eph 6:17 “the sword of the Spirit”

J. Articles

The article of a noun can greatly change the meaning. Describing something with “a” vs. “the” can carry the idea of a defined item, or an undefined.

2. Textual Content Observations

A. Subject/Purpose/Theme

Look to determine the subject/body of the what the text is speaking about. What is the purpose of the text. This can start with a sentence or clauses, and develop out from there.

B. Style, Voice, and Vocabulary

Each author has a particular voice and vocabulary that he uses. Understanding the voice of the author will help you understand how he is communicating, and what his purpose is in communicating (e.g. the tone of Song of Solomon is quite different than Lamentations. The Gospel of John is more theologically oriented than the Gospel of Luke.). Understanding the vocabulary of the author will help understand what he is trying to convey (e.g. military, legal, or medical language). The genre of the literature itself is an important observation. More information about genre will be covered in the next session.

• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writer's_voice

• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writing_style
  

C. Structure and Allotment

Hebrew poetry has a certain style to it. Acrostics and chiasms are found in scripture. How much space does an author put toward a particular subject. Important subjects are often the recipient of more time and energy.

It is insightful to know that the chapter and verse breaks are not part of the ancient text (however, the subtitles in the Psalms are). Basing your understanding of the Bible on the chapter breaks can cause problems, especially where a new chapter begins in the middle of a list, such as Colossians 4:1. Today’s Bible translations often have chapter headings that are not part of the ancient text.

D. What is not stated

Is there information that the author is leaving out? Is a person specifically not mentioned, or referred to in a particular way (e.g. the “disciple that Jesus loved” in John 21:20-24).

3. Contextual Content Observations

A. Literary Context

It is important to understand the text’s position in relationship to the rest of scripture. The intended meaning of a the passage is always consistent with the sense of the literary context in which the passage is found. Understanding the literary context will also develop our understanding of the overall message of the author.

For further reading:

• Klein, Blomberg, and Hubbard, Introduction to Biblical Interpretation, “Literary Context,” 156.
  

B. Historical Context

It is also important to determine the historical context of a book. We need to answer questions like, "Where was the book written?", "When was the book written?", "Who was the book written to?", "What was the political situation of Israel at the time the book was written?", "Why was the book written?", or "What were the recipients of the book going through at the time the book was written?" Understanding the historical background/setting will help you understand the Scriptures better because it allows you to mentally put yourself into the situation of the audience being written to. Good historical information can be found in study Bibles, Bible dictionaries, encyclopedias, commentaries, and manners and customs books.

1. Example: When studying Acts 16:16 and its context, it is important that we understand the historical background of Greek culture at Athens. One must understand the Jewish and Greek thought and the role of logic, rhetoric, reason, and philosophy at the time Paul wrote the book. Jews wanted to see signs and wonders, Greeks wanted to argue, debate, and reason through things.
   

2. Example: Luke 2:1ff Luke and the census of Quirinius

   • http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Census_of_Quirinius

For further reading:

• Klein, Blomberg, and Hubbard, Introduction to Biblical Interpretation, “Historical Cultural Background,” 172ff.

• Virkler, Henry A. Hermeneutics, “Historical Cultural and Contextual Analysis,” 75ff.
  

C. Cultural Context

While historical context is concerned with the broad historical setting and picture, the cultural context of a passage is important to understand cultural meaning that the author is communicating. While cultural customs are not present in every passage, in some passages their role is very important. Some cultural customs can be actions, while they can also be language that is specific to their culture. Cultural customs can be found in a variety of sources, such as Bible dictionaries, Bible encyclopedias, manners and customs books, and commentaries.

1. Example: (John 4:1-42) In studying Jesus' discussion with the Samaritan woman, if a person were to study the cultural background they would discover that Jews didn't normally pass through Samaria. They would also discover that Jewish men didn't converse with unknown women, especially Samaritan women. They would also discover information about the conflict between the Jews and Samaritans.
   

2. Example: (Matt. 22, Matt. 22, John 2) In studying a text which mentions Jewish weddings, it would be very insightful to study Jewish wedding customs. You would want to know the details of the ceremony, the preparations, information about the wedding feast, and what was expected of the bride, groom, and guests who attended.
   

D. Geographic Context

Geography can play an important role in understanding the message of the author. Not knowing geographical information can remove intended meaning, and possibly introduce unintended meaning. It can be helpful to know about cities and metropolitan features as well as mountains and rivers. Bible atlases and maps are very helpful in studying geographical context.

1. Example: (Ps. 120-134) Songs of Ascent
   

E. Theological Context

Theological context looks at how men and women found in the scriptures relate to God. Theological context also looks at the flow of theological concepts present around the text, as well as referenced by the text. It is important to develop a Biblical Theology from the text, so great care must be taken when dealing with theological context. There are several related principles to theological context, such as Progressive Revelation, Scripture Interprets Scripture, and Perspicuity of Scripture.

1. Example: Paul’s training as a pharisee deeply impacts his epistles.
   

There are many different types of information that makes up observations. The above categories attempt to break up the information in an understandable manner.

For further reading:

• Hendricks, Howard. Living by the Book. “Step 1: Observation” 45ff.

• Virkler, Henry A. Hermeneutics, “Lexical-Syntactical Analysis,” 93ff.

1. Purpose of Diagramming

The main purpose of diagramming is to discover relationships. By diagramming the text, you can see the purpose and the relationships of the words! Sometimes, a run on sentence can get confusing (2 Pet 3:15-16). One sentence of the Apostle Paul’s can run many verses (Eph 1:3-14)! We can make the mistake of not seeing the forest, but only the trees. The purpose of diagramming the text is to make sense of hard to understand passages. Diagramming is not necessary on every passage. Many of the texts that are historical narrative are very easy to understand in a straightforward way. However, 'sentence diagramming' is an effective tool in removing confusion as to the meaning of a passage.

2. Diagramming the Text

First, determine the parts of grammar that are used in your verse. In order to properly understand communication, it is necessary to understand the parts of communication.

A. Block Diagramming

Block diagramming uses columns and “blocks” to help illustrate how words relate to each other.

i. Determining main statements

Determine the subject of the sentence. The main verb is very important to distinguish, as dependant clauses will often be modifying the concept/action presented by the verb. Dependant clauses and verbals do not make good sentences when standing alone. Do your best to figure out what is the basic idea that the sentence is communicating. Subjects and ‘completers’ might be implicit/implied in the verb, but the main verb is usually not implied in English, though certain verbs can be implicit in Greek and Hebrew. An implied subject is one that is not mentioned in the text, but understood (usually from previous context).

ii. The Completer

The part of the sentence that completes the idea of the subject. Often the main part of the completer is the ‘direct object’ of the verb.

iii. Modifiers

Words – adjectives, adverbs

Phrases – prepositional phrases

iv. Clauses

Have their own subject and verb

Verb with implied subjects sometimes

A dependant clause cannot stand alone.

B. Line Diagramming

Line diagramming uses lines to help illustrate the relationships of words to each other.

Try a web search for “Bible diagramming” for many more resources.

Historical information about line diagramming in English:

• Early History of Sentence Diagrams

Antiquated diagramming handbook:

• Henry Edgar. Sentence Analysis by Diagram (New York. Newsom and Company, 1915).

Example of a modern grammar:

• http://www.english-grammar-revolution.com/english-grammar-exercise.html

The original languages that the Bible was written in are Hebrew, Greek, and to a much lesser extent Aramaic. In translating God’s word, translators seek to find a way to communicate what the original language means. Translation between languages can be difficult when some languages have many words for nuances of a subject, and other languages have very few words. A single word can require multiple words, whole phrases, or even a sentence. Then there are some features of languages that do not directly translate such as Greek’s inflection, or our English punctuation. Therefore, by doing word studies you can attempt to get at word meaning which a concise translation might not convey.

1. Decide on Word(s)

Word studies can seem overwhelming when approaching a large text with many different words. There will probably be some key words that you will want to define or understand better. Remember that words derive their meaning from their context.

Nature of Words:

• Signs of reality

• Most words have a range of meaning

• Word meanings can change over time

• Word meaning and sentence structure

• Recognize nuances of original language

An Interlinear Translation can help you get an idea of the word and its original language counterpart. If the word is italicized in the English translation, an original language word might not directly equate to it.

2. Word Meaning: Denotations and Etymology

Use tools to learn the range of meanings for the word. First, you can start with an English dictionary if you need to familiarize yourself with the word in English. After learning what the word means, use a Biblical Dictionary. Generally these dictionaries will also have the corresponding words from the original languages. Realize that there is an original language underneath the translation. When attempting to do a word study, you should familiarize yourself with the word(s) from the original language.

In the Biblical dictionary, look at the etymology of the word. Etymology is the study of the origin of words and the way in which their meanings have changed throughout history. The development of the word can sometimes be helpful in understanding the meaning of the word, though it is important to determine and use only that which the author would have intended. Some lexicons feature examples for the different denotations.

3. Comparative and Contrasting Usage

Using a concordance, conduct a study of how a word is used throughout scripture.

1. 1. Conduct a comparative study of word use. It is generally a good idea to limit word usages to the same languages (but sometimes insightful to see how the New Testament relates to the Old Testament language). Get an exhaustive concordance that matches the translation you are using.

   2. Original Language Concordances.

      1. You can do an Englishman’s concordance search.

      2. You can do a Strong’s number search. Every original language word in the Bible was given a corresponding number.

      3. Use Bible software/Online tools. Bible software can open up your Hebrew or Greek dictionaries or Word Study resources very quickly.

      4. You can also use Young’s Analytical Concordance.

   3. It also can be helpful to look at synonyms and antonyms.
      

4. Contextual Usage

Study the word as it was used in the culture of the time it was written. Remember that sometimes a single Greek word may be translated multiple ways in English. So don’t assume that the English word in your text is the English word used in some dictionaries or word study books.

1. 1. Harpers Bible Dictionary

   2. Anchor Bible Dictionary

   3. Theological Bible Dictionary of the New Testament

   4. Vine's Expository Dictionary of Biblical Words

   5. Zondervan Pictorial Bible Encyclopedia
      

5. Specific Denotation

Determine the specific denotation intended by the author.

6. Analyze Syntax

Look at the passage in which the word occurs. How does the word relate to the rest of the passage? Understanding the grammar of the passage will help illustrate how the word fits into the author’s flow of thought.

7. Consult Translations and Commentaries

Look at various translations to see how different translations have rendered the word.

1. 1. Literal and dynamic equivalence translations are helpful. Paraphrastic translations will not necessarily help.

   2. The point here is not to pick the one you like best, but rather to learn how various translators have translated the word.

   3. Commentaries can also have helpful information about the word.
      

8. Present Your Results

Rephrase your results in layman's terms. Make a concise explanation of what your results of the word study turned up.

Spend a few minutes and complete this observations exercise:

• Observations Exercise

Pick one of these options to do a Word study:

• 1 Thess 3:6 “good news”

• John 4:24 “worship”

• Acts 8:3 “church”

• Choose your own adventure… pick a verse/word that you are interested in
  

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